Atp Quotes

Glyphosate also interferes with ATP production by affecting your mitochondrial membranes. When coupled with the so-called inert solvents included in Roundup, the toxicity of glyphosate is magnified as much as 2,000-fold. This makes the membrane more permeable, allowing the glyphosate to go straight to the heart of the mitochondria.

Training energy system to effectively resynthesize ATP – as quickly as possible – so that muscle contraction continues without onset of fatigue – forms the basis of most exercise protocols.

Cardiac muscle cells burn fats for fuel, so the heart is especially vulnerable to even subtle deficiencies in the factors contributing to ATP supply: coenzyme Q10, D-ribose, and L-carnitine. These

Two foods that slow the rate of neurogenesis are sugars and oxidized (damaged) fats. When oxidized fats get into your bloodstream, they cause inflammation. That inflammation slows your ability to make precious ATP, chews up the insides of your blood vessels, inhibits blood flow to the brain, and slows neurogenesis to a crawl. A high-sugar diet slows your rate of neurogenesis by increasing the amount of insulin in the bloodstream. Too

To complicate matters further, proteins must catalyze formation of the basic building blocks of cellular life such as sugars, lipids, glycolipids, nucleotides, and ATP (adenosine triphosphate, the main energy molecule of the cell).

ATP hutumika katika kipindi ambapo mtu anakuwa amekata tamaa kabisa katika jambo lolote analolifanya, na yeyote anayetumia ATP ana uwezo mkubwa wa kufanikiwa katika maisha yake. Hivyo, usikate tamaa, jitahidi kwa kadiri ya uwezo wako WOTE.

Life uses information (stored in DNA) to capture energy (which it stores in a chemical called ATP) to create order. Humans burn prodigious amounts of energy — we generate about 10,000 times as much energy per gram as the sun. The sun is hotter only because it is much bigger. We use energy to create and maintain intricate cellular and bodily complexity, the opposite of entropy, just as we do in the economy, where the harnessing of power from burning fuel enables us to build skyscrapers and aeroplanes.

A sedentary lifestyle—too much time spent on couches or at desks and not enough movement—is the most common trigger for muscular atrophy. When we move our muscles as little as possible, with a sedentary lifestyle, we turn down our furnaces and literally cause our muscles to atrophy. When the cells atrophy, we feel even more tired because we have fewer mitochondria generating ATP. A vicious circle begins: less energy leading to less movement, which leads to less energy, which leads to less movement. Atrophy from a sedentary lifestyle leads to weight gain, loss of energy, and chronic aches and pains. But atrophy can be easily prevented, stopped, and even reversed with daily gentle full-body exercise.

So then who is the guy I pick?” “That Brandon Randall is a good one.” Brandon Randall was the number one player in the ATP. They called him “the Nice Guy of Tennis.” “Sí, claro, papá,” I said. “I would love to go out on a date with Brandon Randall. But he’s married. To Nina Riva, a swimsuit model.” “Mick Riva’s kid?” my dad said. “I cannot stand that guy. Oh. Well, someone like Brandon, then. A nice guy. Go for a nice guy. Please.

You may recall from an earlier chapter that the mitochondria are thought to have originated as captive bacteria and that they now live essentially as lodgers in our cells, preserving their own genetic instructions, dividing to their own timetable, speaking their own language. You may also recall that we are at the mercy of their goodwill. Here’s why. Virtually all the food and oxygen you take into your body are delivered, after processing, to the mitochondria, where they are converted into a molecule called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP.

Thermoneutrality”: A hallmark of modern industrial life is spending most of our time indoors at relatively consistent ambient temperatures, a concept we’ll refer to as thermoneutrality. Interestingly, experiencing swings in temperature is great for mitochondrial function, as cold stimulates the body to generate more warmth by increasing mitochondrial activity and stimulates more ATP generation and use. Heat exposure has been shown to activate heat shock proteins (HSPs) within cells, which can protect mitochondria from damage and help to maintain their function. HSPs can also stimulate the production of new mitochondria and improve their efficiency in producing ATP.

We have phosphate on our DNA. Aluminum attaches itself to it and messes up our genetic coding process. While the aluminum is inside a cell, some of its particles attach to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP is in charge of our cell’s energy production. So, in this manner the aluminum can affect our energy level. We have enzymes (proteins) within our cells that depend on attaching themselves to calcium (Ca) or magnesium (Mg) to function properly. Once our enzymes have attached to the Ca and Mg, they can carry on with their functions. Because the aluminum has such a strong positive charge, it’s able to break the bond between our enzymes and Ca or Mg. These enzymes are now no longer attached to Ca or Mg. They have become neutralized and are unable to carry out their responsibilities. We need these enzymes for efficient metabolism, but now the aluminum is attached to the enzymes instead. The protein molecules all look a little different because their shape reflects what they are designed to do. Aluminum disturbs their individual tasks and clumps them together so they are now misshapen and no longer functioning. Aluminum also messes with the cell surface, the membrane, the outer layer of the cell. With a dysfunctional cell membrane, everything inside the cell becomes compromised and it is no longer able to properly communicate with the environment surrounding the cell about what needs to be done[96].

You use more than thirty pounds of ATP during a one-hour walk and more than your entire body weight of ATP over the course of a typical day—an obviously impossible amount to lug around in reserve.15 Consequently, a human body stores in toto only about a hundred grams of ATPs at any given moment.16 Fortunately, before our first few steps deplete the leg muscles’ scant supply of ATPs, they quickly tap into another ATP-like molecule known as creatine phosphate that also binds to phosphates and stores energy.17 Unfortunately, those creatine phosphate reserves are also limited, becoming 60 percent depleted after ten seconds of sprinting and exhausted after thirty seconds.18 Even so, the precious short burst of fuel they provide gives muscles time to fire up a second energy recharging process: breaking down sugar.

The second is that our food is being transported over large distances, causing degradation and damage to nutrients. The average distance that produce travels from farm to plate in the United States is approximately fifteen hundred miles. During this journey, some fruits and vegetables can lose up to 77 percent of their vitamin C content, a critical micronutrient for ATP production in the mitochondria and antioxidant activity in the cell. You may have thought that “eating local” or shopping from farmers’ markets is frivolous, but it is actually a critical step to ensure you are getting maximal helpful molecular information in the bites you take to build and instruct your body. The third is that most of our U.S. calorie consumption is ultra-processed foods, stripped of their nutrition. About 60 percent or more of the calories adults in the nation consume is ultra-processed garbage. You’re looking at just a fraction of that seventy tons meeting the cells’ functional needs. No

For years, exercise scientists have been convinced that the only way to increase mitochondrial density is with aerobic endurance training, but recent studies have proved otherwise. Not only is an increase in the size and number of mitochondria a proven adaptation to HIIT, but the mitochondrial benefit of HIIT goes way beyond size and number. For example, all your mitochondria contain oxidative enzymes, such as citrate synthase, malate dehydrogenase, and succinate dehydrogenase. These oxidative enzymes lead to improved metabolic function of your skeletal muscles—particularly by causing more effective fat and carbohydrate breakdown for fuel and also by accelerating energy formation from ATP. So more oxidative enzymes means that you have a higher capacity for going longer and harder. And it turns out that, according to an initial study on the effect of HIIT on oxidative enzymes, there were enormous increases in skeletal muscle oxidative enzymes in seven weeks in subjects who did four to ten thirty-second maximal cycling sprints followed by four minutes of recovery just three days a week. But what about HIIT as opposed to aerobic cardio? Another six-week training study compared the increase in oxidative enzymes that resulted from either: 1. Four to six thirty-second maximal-effort cycling sprints, each followed by four-and-a-half minutes of recovery, performed three days a week (classic HIIT training) or 2. Forty to sixty minutes of steady cycling at 65 percent VO2 max (an easy aerobic intensity) five days a week The levels of oxidative enzymes in the mitochondria in subjects who performed the HIIT program were significantly higher—even though they were training at a fraction of the volume of the aerobic group. How could this favorable endurance adaptation happen with such short periods of exercise? It turns out that the increased mitochondrial density and oxidative-enzyme activity from HIIT are caused by completely different message-signaling pathways than those created by traditional endurance training.

Thirdly, more ATP is necessary for the “pumping” of the calcium ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, so that contraction can cease when neural stimulation ceases.

Since any muscle cell will eventually reach a state of exhaustion—a depletion of available ATP—if it is kept constantly firing and working, one of the primary tasks of neuromuscular coordination is to maintain this overall tension set without exhausting any one cell. This is accomplished by a firing pattern called asynchronous stimulation, which alternates the working tonus contraction from motor unit to motor unit, so that some are always engaged while others are resting.

Kila binadamu ana nguvu ya ziada katika mwili wake ijulikanayo kitaalamu kama ATP. ATP (‘Adenosine Triphosphate’) ni molekuli ndogo zaidi iliyoko ndani ya seli ambayo kazi yake ni kutengeneza nguvu ya ziada kwa ajili ya seli, na kwa ajili ya mwili mzima kwa jumla, pale mwili unapoonekana kukata tamaa au kuishiwa na nguvu kabisa. Ni kama jenereta ya umeme kwa ajili ya seli, inayofanya kazi pale umeme wa kawaida unapokatika.

ATP inaweza kukusaidia kupata akili na nguvu ya kufanya jambo ambalo katika hali ya kawaida lisingewezekana. Wakati mwingine unaweza kufanya jambo hata wewe mwenyewe ukashangaa umelifanyaje. Unaweza kwa mfano kufukuzwa na mnyama mkali ukapenya mahali ambapo, katika hali ya kawaida usingepenya. Sasa usishangae tena. Kilichofanya upenye ni ATP.

Kuamsha ATP lazima kwanza ukate tamaa. Lazima kwanza uishiwe na nguvu. Kisha ujilazimishe, au ulazimishwe na mazingira, kufanya jambo.

Glucose molecules are driven into cells in the presence of insulin. This is independent of the carbohydrate source (simple or complex, table sugar or broccoli). As dictated by the metabolic demands of the body at that instant, glucose is either utilized for ATP production or stored as glycogen or converted to fat. Eat an ice cream sundae and lay on the couch, for example. There is no immediate demand for the consumed glucose and all the surplus is therefore converted to fatty acids and stored as fat. This is why I am an advocate of short walks after a meal; just the opposite occurs. Create a demand and the body will utilize the consumed glucose for energy production, fueling your leg muscles! This equates to less circulating glucose and less AGE formation, in essence conferring protection to the endothelial lining of the blood vessels.

Yes. There are a variety of reasons that we as humans age, one of which is oxidant stress from free radical formation. Known as the Free Radical Theory of Aging, this explanation was first proposed by Denham Harman in the 1950s. Other theories include unchecked inflammation, glycation, cell membrane and DNA damage. Interestingly, they are interrelated as I will explain. Every cell in our body requires energy for a variety of processes. The production of such cellular energy or ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is occurring at the molecular level, unbeknownst to you, billions of times per second, in cellular structures known as mitochondria. Through a complex series of chemical reactions, electrons are ultimately transferred to oxygen, driving the formation of ATP molecules. No oxygen, no electron receptor, death ensues. (Note: Cyanide poisons this so-called “electron transport chain” often times resulting in death.) This process of ATP generation is imperfect.

To be a cell, then, is to be a deterministic system governed by DNA, composed largely of proteins and lipids, and energized by ATP. Some cells are more like us than you may imagine—E. coli, for example, the standard organism of genetic engineering.

Magnesium aids in the making of the primary form of energy—ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Therefore, a deficiency in magnesium can make you tired or low in energy.

Let’s begin at the beginning—what is oxygen and why do you need it? The oxygen in the air you breathe is part of the Krebs cycle, which is a biochemical process that produces ATP, the building block of energy for your body. Your body gets the oxygen it needs out of your lungs. When you drown, your lungs are filled with water, and this oxygen transfer can’t occur. No ATP equals death. (Randomly, because if you’re reading this far, we’re all nerds—the reason cyanide kills you is it blocks another function in the Krebs cycle, which also = no ATP = death.)

everyone on my team says I’m destined to kick him off the top of that vaunted mountain. I tell them that tennis has nothing to do with destiny. Destiny has better things to do than count ATP points.

The Manual of Breath Therapy, wrote in a 2015 article, “With more breathing, there is simply more ATP, while the production of lactic acids is reduced, which keeps the body in an alkaline state. At the same time, with deeper breathing, more CO2 is exhaled, the blood pH level becomes more alkaline, and thus more aerobic dissimilation can happen.

Infrared light therapy stimulates production of collagen, ribonucleic acid (RNA), ATP, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which enhances the body’s cellular repair rejuvenation systems, providing relief from pain and shortening recovery time.

Interval training is the repeated performance of high-intensity exercises, for set periods, followed by set periods of rest. Intervals can consist of any variety of movements with any variation of work and rest times. It burns far more calories and produces positive changes in body composition with much less time than aerobic training. This is not only because of the muscle it builds, but also the effect it has on the metabolism following the workouts. Strength training creates enough stress on the body’s homeostasis that a large energy (calorie) expenditure is required long after the exercise has stopped. During low-intensity aerobic exercise, fat oxidation occurs while exercising and stops upon completion. During high-intensity exercise your body oxidizes carbs for energy, not fat. Then, for a long time afterward, fat oxidation takes place to return systems to normal: to restore depleted carbohydrates, creatine phosphate, ATP (adenosine triphosphate), circulatory hormones, re-oxygenate the blood, and decrease body temperature, ventilation and heart rate. Not to mention the longer term demands: strengthening tendons and ligaments, increasing bone density, forming new capillaries, motor skill adaptation, repairing muscle tissue and building new muscle. And the more muscle mass you have, the more calories you are able to burn during and after exercise.

... Glikoz artışı zirveye ulaştığı zaman hareketsiz kalırsak, glikoz hücrelerimize akar ve mitokondrimizi altüst eder. Serbest radikaller üretilir, enflamasyon artar ve glikoz fazlası karaciğerde, kaslarda ve yağlarda depolanır. Öte yandan bağırsağımızdan kan dolaşımımıza ilerlerken kaslarımızı kasarsak, mitokondrimiz daha yüksek bir yakma kapasitesine ulaşır. O kadar hızlı altüst olmaz ve ekstra glikozu çalışan kaslarımıza yakıt olarak ATP yapmak için kullanmak mitokondrimizi çok mutlu eder. Sürekli glikoz takip grafiğinde aradaki fark çok çarpıcıdır.

Recall that when we eat, the calories in our food are either turned into usable energy or stored for later use. The usable form of energy is called ATP, short for adenosine triphosphate. Most of our ATP is made in energy factories known as mitochondria. Energy can also be stored as fat or glycogen (the storage form of carbohydrates), both of which can be converted to ATP if food is not available.

Migraine, like my patient Sarah had, also correlates closely to poor metabolic health. In the ENT otology clinic, we often saw this condition and had limited success in treating it. Sufferers of this debilitating neurological disease—about 12 percent of people in the United States—tend to have higher insulin levels and insulin resistance. A comprehensive review of fifty-six research articles identified links between migraine and poor metabolic health, pointing out that “migraine sufferers tend to have impaired insulin sensitivity.” The review supports the “neuro-energetic” theory of migraine. Additionally, evidence suggests that micronutrient deficiencies in key mitochondrial cofactors may also be a contributing factor of migraine. Research has suggested that migraines could be treated by restoring levels of vitamins B and D, magnesium, CoQ10, alpha lipoic acid, and L-carnitine. Vitamin B12, for instance, is involved in the electron transport chain responsible for the final steps of ATP generation in the mitochondria, and studies have indicated that high doses of B12 can help prevent migraine. These micronutrients usually have fewer side effects than other drugs used to treat migraines, making them a promising option for relief, which can be obtained through a diet rich in these micronutrients, or supplementation. Having high markers of oxidative stress, a key Bad Energy feature, is associated with a significantly higher risk of migraine in women, with some studies suggesting that migraine attacks are a symptomatic response to increased levels of oxidative stress. Less painful and more common tension-type headaches are also linked to high variability (excess peaks and crashes) in blood sugar. Hearing Loss The same story of metabolic ignorance in the ENT department unfolded for auditory problems and hearing loss, one of the most common issues presented to our ENT clinic. We’d typically tell our patients that their auditory decline was inevitable, due to aging and loud concerts in their youth, and we would suggest interventions like hearing aids. Yet insulin resistance is a little-known link to hearing problems. If you have insulin resistance, you are more likely to lose hearing as you age because of poor energy production in the delicate hearing cells and blockage of the small blood vessels that supply the inner ear. One study showed that insulin resistance is associated with age-related hearing loss, even when controlling for weight and age. The likely mechanism for this is that the auditory system requires high energy utilization for its complex signal processing. In the case of insulin resistance, glucose metabolism is disturbed, leading to decreased energy generation. The impact of Bad Energy on hearing is not subtle: A study showed that the prevalence of high-frequency hearing impairment among subjects with elevated fasting glucose levels was 42 percent compared to 24 percent in those with normal fasting glucose. Moreover, insulin resistance is associated with high-frequency mild hearing impairment in the male population under seventy years of age, even before the onset of diabetes. These papers suggest that assessing early metabolic function and levels of insulin resistance is essential in the ENT clinic and counseling individuals on the potential warning signs is paramount.

PDGFR, or Bcr/Abl. Their strategy was to focus on the exact place on the kinase that bound phosphate on its way from ATP to the protein. The theory behind kinase inhibition was that each kinase had a particular notch or groove that made a tight fit with ATP, and that the shape of these notches varied from kinase to kinase. That variation was what made kinases viable drug targets. Zimmermann believed that this binding site—the exact spot where the kinase bound ATP to capture the phosphate that would be used to switch on another protein—seemed like the most likely location of each kinase’s unique fingerprint. That binding site was what allowed the kinase to serve its function on the cell, so it made sense to Zimmermann that this area would be distinct both from the binding site of other kinases and from other areas on the same kinase.

The discovery that on the Web a few hubs grab most of the links initiated a frantic search for hubs in many areas. The results are startling: We now know that Hollywood, the Web, and society are not unique by any means. For example, hubs surface in the cell, in the network of molecules connected by chemical reactions. A few molecules, such as water or ademosine triphosphate (ATP), are the Rod Steigers of the cell, participating in a huge number of reactions. On the Internet, the network of physical lines connecting computers worldwide, a few hubs were determined to play a crucial role in guaranteeing the Internet's robustness against failures. Erdos is a major hub of mathematics, as 507 mathematicians have Erdos number one. According to an AT&T study, a few phone numbers are responsible for an extraordinarily high fraction of calls placed or received. While those with a teenager living in their homes might have suspicions about the identity of some of these phone hubs, the truth is that telemarketing firms and consumer service numbers are probably the real culprits. Hubs appear in most large complex networks that scientists have been able to study so far. They are ubiquitous, a generic building block of our complex, interconnected world.

Much of our internal heat is generated by dissipating the proton gradient across the mitochondrial membranes (see page 183). Since the proton gradient can either power ATP production or heat production, we are faced with alternatives: any protons dissipated to produce heat cannot be used to make ATP. (As we saw in Part 2, the proton gradient has other critical functions too, but if we assume that these remain constant, they don’t affect our argument.) If 30 per cent of the proton gradient is used to produce heat, then no more than 70 per cent can be used to produce ATP. Wallace and colleagues realized that this balance could plausibly shift according to the climate. People living in tropical Africa would gain from a tight coupling of protons to ATP production, so generating less internal heat in a hot climate, whereas the Inuit, say, would gain by generating more internal heat in their frigid environment, and so would necessarily generate relatively little ATP. To compensate for their lower ATP production, they would need to eat more. Wallace set out to find any mitochondrial genes that might influence the balance between heat production and ATP generation, and found several variants that plausibly affected heat production (by uncoupling electron flow from proton pumping). The variants that produced the most heat were favoured in the Arctic, as expected, while those that produced the least were found in Africa.

When our investigators specifically requested the BSBDA and banks acknowledged the existence of this account, this was usually followed by misrepresentation of the customer’s eligibility as well as strong verbal disincentives to open such an account. For instance, bank officers would tell the investigators: “The zero balance account may be offered……. only for exceptional cases like students, delivery cases (of government welfare schemes). Then for “ATP”4, blind persons, deaf persons, other special categories.

In one day, mitochondria turn over the body’s weight equivalent in ATP, an astonishing degree of chemical churn.

Availability of ATP declines during contraction, but it is abnormal for a muscle to totally run out of ATP. So, lack of ATP is not a fatigue-producing factor in moderate exercise.

■ATP and creatine phosphate reserves must be resynthesized.

Early in “Postulates of Linguistics,” Deleuze and Guattari claim that, “the elementary unit of language … is the order-word,” which “not to be believe but to be obeyed” (ATP, 76). Perhaps the starkest example is the judge’s sentence that condemns a criminal to death (80-81; 94). But the French for order-word, mot d’ordre, also refers to the political slogan, which is substantiated by Deleuze and Guattari’s reference to Lenin’s pamphlet “On Slogans” (83). Both of these examples indicate how closely their linguistics aligns with the rhetorical theory of symbolic action. Rhetoric is excellent at studying those acts that cause incorporeal transformations, which as changes in a state of affairs that do not directly alter its materiality (80-88).

Muscles are distinguished by their ability to transform chemical energy (ATP) into directed mechanical energy. In so doing, they become capable of exerting force.

To sum up, we lose the ability to transport copper because we don’t have access to the ceruloplasmin taxi, which feeds copper to the cells and to the mitochondria. If ceruloplasmin cannot get copper to the cells and their mitochondrial power grids, the result is a general breakdown of ATP production. And if enough copper is not available, we cannot regulate oxygen metabolism and cytochrome c oxidase is not going to be able to activate oxygen to create energy. If that happens, then we’re not going to be able to regulate iron metabolism. The end result is that our mitochondria are not able to make energy, and the body is not going to be able to make heme and iron sulfur clusters, which are created as a part of the mitochondrial actions. Given that iron is a terminal destination in the mitochondria, we’re going to have a serious problem because this iron will build up inside the ferritin storage proteins, both inside the mitochondria, as well as inside the cells. Then we’re going to lose the ability to regulate the reactive oxidative stress that takes place. And we’re not going to have enough antioxidant enzymes to break down the oxidative stress that’s building. This is why both copper and ceruloplasmin are so important for proper energy production that does not result in iron buildup and oxidative stress, particularly in Complex IV, but in all mitochondrial complexes of the ETC.

Carbohydrates are our primary energy source. In digestion, most carbohydrates are broken down to glucose, which is consumed by all cells to create energy in the form of ATP. Excess glucose, beyond what we need immediately, can be stored in the liver or muscles as glycogen for near-term use or socked away in adipose tissue (or other places) as fat. This decision is made with the help of the hormone insulin, which surges in response to the increase in blood glucose.

Thus, bees buzz and hummingbirds hum, squids and chameleons change color, amoebas engulf prey, crows solve problems, and humans build rockets to the stars, only because oxidation releases metabolic energy in quantities much greater than are needed for merely sustaining the basic metabolism of the cell. Proton Pumping THE MECHANISM by which cells use cellular respiration to manufacture ATP is not only one of the wonders of cell biology, but also one of the most unexpected and important discoveries of twentieth-century science.

OxPhos, which occurs in the mitochondrion, burns each glucose molecule with oxygen to generate thirty-six ATP. Without oxygen, normal cells must resort to glycolysis, which generates only two ATP and two lactic acid molecules per glucose molecule.

Mitochondria are small contained units within your cells that function as your body’s power plants.7 When all is said and done, it’s the mitochondria that are responsible for giving you the energy to make your body run. Since everything that happens in your body requires energy—heart beating, stomach digesting, brain thinking, muscles moving—you need a constant supply of juice, which comes in the form of the chemical ATP. The mitochondria in each cell provide that juice by processing the glucose and fat from the food you eat. Those mitochondria convert glucose and fat into ATP, which is the jolt that is sent to your organs and systems to make everything run.

However, two features of BHB and acetoacetate metabolism provide an advantage for cells that glucose does not offer. The first advantage is that, compared to glucose, fewer free radicals are produced during the process of ATP production from the ketones. The second advantage is that ATP production from the ketones is more efficient—more ATP is produced from each ketone molecule than is produced from each glucose molecule.

(ATP), which, as you may recall, stores potential energy. When energy is needed, ATP releases its energy and reverts to AMP.

Normally, cells may generate energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in two different ways: oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos), also called respiration; and glycolysis, also called fermentation.

Given its central role, it’s not surprising that the flux of ATP is often referred to as the currency of metabolic energy for almost all of life. At any one time our bodies contain only about half a pound (about 250 g) of ATP, but here’s something truly extraordinary that you should know about yourself: every day you typically make about 2 × 1026 ATP molecules—that’s two hundred trillion trillion molecules—corresponding to a mass of about 80 kilograms (about 175 lbs.). In other words, each day you produce and recycle the equivalent of your own body weight of ATP! Taken together, all of these ATPs add up to meet our total metabolic needs at the rate of the approximately 90 watts we require to stay alive and power our bodies.

Reduced levels of ATP have been found in a wide variety of disorders, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, alcoholism, PTSD, autism, OCD, Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and obesity.

AMPK prompts the cell to conserve and seek alternative sources of energy. It does this first by stimulating the production of new mitochondria, the tiny organelles that produce energy in the cell, via a process called mitochondrial biogenesis. Over time—or with disuse—our mitochondria become vulnerable to oxidative stress and genomic damage, leading to dysfunction and failure. Restricting the amount of nutrients that are available, via dietary restriction or exercise, triggers the production of newer, more efficient mitochondria to replace old and damaged ones. These fresh mitochondria help the cell produce more ATP, the cellular energy currency, with the fuel it does have. AMPK also prompts the body to provide more fuel for these new mitochondria, by producing glucose in the liver (which we’ll talk about in the next chapter) and releasing energy stored in fat cells.

Mitochondria are the energy sources of your cells—the essential force of life and longevity. They transform food and oxygen into ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, a type of molecule that powers biochemical reactions. ATP molecules are especially abundant in the cells of your heart, brain, and muscles. The advice in this book, on food, sleep, and nearly everything else, supports mitochondrial production and optimal function. And this little trick—a cold shower at the end of your hot one—does too.

Oxidation burns things gradually and steadily. Just as oxidation causes metal to rust and apple flesh to brown, it damages cells throughout the body by zapping DNA, scarring the walls of arteries, inactivating enzymes, and mangling proteins. Paradoxically, the more oxygen we use, the more we generate reactive oxygen species, so theoretically vigorous physical activities that consume lots of oxygen should accelerate senescence. A related driver of senescence is mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondria are the tiny power plants in cells that burn fuel with oxygen to generate energy (ATP). Cells in energy-hungry organs like muscles, the liver, and the brain can have thousands of mitochondria. Because mitochondria have their own DNA, they also play a role in regulating cell function, and they produce proteins that help protect against diseases like diabetes and cancer.29 Mitochondria, however, burn oxygen, creating reactive oxygen species that, unchecked, cause self-inflicted damage. When mitochondria cease to function properly or dwindle in number, they cause senescence and illness.30

Strength is largely a neurologic quality while endurance is largely a metabolic quality. Restating this: Strength depends on the brain’s ability to recruit the greatest number of muscle fibers for a task. Endurance depends on the rate of metabolic turnover of ATP molecules. We use the modifier largely above because these two qualities overlap and are interdependent in endurance sports.

When fructose is metabolized in the liver, for instance, it accelerates the breakdown of a molecule called ATP, which is the primary source of energy for cellular reactions and is loaded with purines. (“ATP” stands for “adenosine triphosphate”; adenosine is a form of adenine, a purine.) This in turn increases the formation of uric acid. Alcohol raises uric acid levels through the same mechanism (although beer also has purines in it). The effect of fructose on ATP also works to stimulate the synthesis of purines, and the metabolism of fructose leads to the production of lactic acid, which reduces the excretion of uric acid by the kidney and thereby raises uric acid concentrations indirectly.

ATP as a currency of energy. The same is true across all life. Picture a BLT sandwich: every component, from the lettuce and tomatoes to the pig that produced the bacon, to the yeast that baked the bread, to the microbes that surely sit on its surface, speaks the same molecular language.

Step 2: Use the free energy in the form of isolated hydrogen to unburn carbon. The clever aspect of this part of the process is that the plants don’t release the free energy stored as isolated hydrogen in one go. Instead, they divide up the free energy held in the isolated hydrogen into other chemicals that have specifically evolved to store Gibbs free energy. The most common of these is adenosine triphosphate or ATP. Think of ATP as a tiny molecular spring that becomes coiled when it receives free energy. That packet of energy can then be accessed on demand by the chemical equivalent of releasing the spring in the ATP.

Using the Gibbs free energy stored in ATP, plants unburn carbon dioxide. In a series of choreographed chemical reactions, the free energy in each ATP molecule is released and used to split the carbon and oxygen in atmospheric carbon dioxide and repackage them into molecules known as carbohydrates. This is known as “fixing” carbon and it has two main purposes. First, carbohydrates provide building block materials such as cellulose, which give the plant structure. Second, making carbohydrates doesn’t use up all the energy stored in the ATP. The unused energy is, in effect, transferred into the carbohydrate molecules. They are also chemical springs. This means that carbohydrates themselves become temporary stores of free energy, which can then be used to fuel plant growth and all the other chemical reactions a plant needs to live. This second step in photosynthesis, when the free energy in isolated hydrogen is used to fix carbon, is called the dark reaction.

This is what makes animals such as us possible. From a Gibbs free energy perspective, we’re plants that run backward. When we eat plants or eat other animals that eat plants, we’re ingesting chemicals such as carbohydrates that plants have created and turned into rich stores of Gibbs free energy. In a precise reversal of the dark reactions in photosynthesis, animal cells release the free energy stored in carbohydrates and use it to make their own ATP molecules. These fuel many of the chemical processes that take place in animal cells, enabling them to live. At the end of this process, the carbon that the plants fixed from atmospheric carbon dioxide is reunited with oxygen and breathed out again as carbon dioxide.

Luckily, human physiology offers one more pathway to power our brains. When food is no longer available, after about three days, the liver begins to use body fat to create those ketones. This is when beta-HBA serves as a highly efficient fuel source for the brain, allowing us to function cognitively for extended periods during food scarcity. Such an alternative fuel source helps reduce our dependence on gluconeogenesis and, therefore, preserves our muscle mass. But more than this, as Harvard Medical School professor George F. Cahill stated, “Recent studies have shown that beta-hydroxybutyrate, the principal ketone, is not just a fuel, but a superfuel, more efficiently producing ATP energy than glucose. It has also protected neuronal cells in tissue cultures against exposure to toxins associated with Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s.”2

In an average person, ATP is produced at a rate of 9 × 1020 molecules per second, which equates to a turnover rate (the rate at which it is produced and consumed) of about 65 kg every day.

Blocking inositol triphosphate stops the wave. Inositol triphosphate receptor activation by calcium can desensitize the receptors. Inositol triphosphate is more sensitive to their receptors, but it is also less reactive than calcium and can act over many areas of the cell. Calcium and inositol triphosphate act like a hand on a faucet when they bind their receptors on the endoplasmic reticulum. After turning on the faucet, calcium flows out. The release of calcium from internal endoplasmic reticulum through these receptors results in sparks or puffs before it is sequestered back into the endoplasmic reticulum. These sparks or puffs can be amplified by neighboring endoplasmic reticulum as calcium itself releases more calcium stores. To get calcium back into the endoplasmic reticulum, energy must be used. ATP (Adenosine-5-triphosphate) is produced by the mitochondria, the power plants of the cell, by using energy from the blood. ATP consumption in the cell is similar to world oil consumption. It is the voracious creation of energy and power. Believe it or not, the ion that stimulates ATP production in the mitochondria is none other than calcium. When we eat and drink, our body breaks down our foods into energy. This energy is required for the mitochondria to produce ATP. Fats and sugars are broken down into units that are eventually utilized by the mitochondria transport system. When there is not enough energy available, calcium is unable to pump back into the endoplasmic reticulum and calcium diffusion can

These effects result in depletion of cellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and potentially severe detrimental effects on cell function. It is important to note that the inflammatory response also causes release of vasoconstrictor substances including thromboxane and endothelins.

what happens if we take a cyanide pill: it jams up the final proton pump of the respiratory chain in our mitochondria. If the respiratory pumps are impeded in this way, protons can continue to flow in through the ATP synthase for a few seconds before the proton concentration equilibrates across the membrane, and net flow ceases. It is almost as hard to define death as life, but the irrevocable collapse of membrane potential comes pretty close. So

1. For Strength Gain and Muscle Mass Detailed Dosage: Start with a loading phase of 20g per day, divided into 4 doses of 5g, for 5-7 days, followed by a maintenance phase of 5-10g daily. Specific Benefits: This approach aims to saturate the muscles with creatine, maximizing the muscle's capacity to regenerate ATP during intense exercises, resulting in greater strength and endurance during high-intensity training, and promoting greater muscle growth due to increased training capacity and potential hyperhydration of muscle cells.