Hpa Quotes

Overloading the HPA axis, especially in infancy and childhood, produces all kinds of serious and long-lasting negative effects—physical, psychological, and neurological.

The main issue is that when the stress response is activated too frequently or if the stressor is too intense, the body can lose the ability to shut down the HPA and SAM axes. The term for this is disruption of feedback inhibition, which is a science-y way of saying that the body’s stress thermostat is broken. Instead of shutting off the supply of “heat” when a certain point is reached, it just keeps on blasting cortisol through your system. This is exactly what Fisher and Bruce were seeing in the foster kids.

Psychological factors such as uncertainty, conflict, lack of control, and lack of information are considered the most stressful stimuli and strongly activate the HPA axis. Sense of control and consummatory behaviour result in immediate suppression of HPA activity.

the body is equipped with what Cannon named the stress response, also known as the fight-or-flight response, a survival mechanism that gets flipped on when your brain perceives a threat. When this hormonal cascade is triggered by a thought or emotion in the mind, such as fear, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis activates, thereby stimulating the sympathetic nervous system to race into overdrive, pumping up the body’s cortisol and adrenaline levels. Over time, filling the body with these stress hormones can manifest as physical symptoms, predisposing the body to disease over time.

When the HPA stress axis is overloaded in childhood or the teenage years, it leads to long-lasting side effects—not just because of the impact stress has on us at that time in our lives, but also because early chronic stress biologically reprograms how we will react to stressful events for our entire lives. That

Consummatory behaviour—from the Latin consummare, “to complete”—is behaviour that removes the danger or relieves the tension caused by it. We recall that stress-inducing stimuli are not always objective external threats like predators or potential physical disasters but also include internal perceptions that something we consider essential is lacking. This is why lack of control, lack of information—and, as we will see, unsatisfied emotional needs (e.g., lack of love), trigger the HPA axis. Consummation of such needs abolishes the stress response.

most of our stress today comes from mental processes: from worrying about things. And the HPA axis isn’t designed to handle that kind of stress. We “activate a physiological system that has evolved for responding to acute physical emergencies,” Sapolsky writes, “but we turn it on for months on end, worrying about mortgages, relationships, and promotions.” And over the past fifty years, scientists have discovered that this phenomenon is not merely inefficient but also highly destructive. Overloading the HPA axis, especially in infancy and childhood, produces all kinds of serious and long-lasting negative effects—physical, psychological, and neurological.

The amygdala: the brain’s fear center Prefrontal cortex: the front part of the brain that regulates cognitive and executive function, including judgment and mood and emotions Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis: initiates the production of cortisol (longer-acting stress hormone) by the adrenal glands Sympatho-adrenomedullary (SAM) axis: initiates the production of adrenaline and noradrenaline (short-acting stress hormones) by the adrenal glands and brain Hippocampus: processes emotional information, critical for consolidating memories Noradrenergic nucleus in the locus coeruleus: the within-the-brain stress-response system that regulates mood, irritability, locomotion, arousal, attention, and the startle response

The first step in retracing our way to health is to abandon our attachment to what is called positive thinking. Too many times in the course of palliative care work I sat with dejected people who expressed their bewilderment at having developed cancer. “I have always been a positive thinker,” one man in his late forties told me. “I have never given in to pessimistic thoughts. Why should I get cancer?” As an antidote to terminal optimism, I have recommended the power of negative thinking. “Tongue in cheek, of course,” I quickly add. “What I really believe in is the power of thinking.” As soon as we qualify the word thinking with the adjective positive, we exclude those parts of reality that strike us as “negative.” That is how most people who espouse positive thinking seem to operate. Genuine positive thinking begins by including all our reality. It is guided by the confidence that we can trust ourselves to face the full truth, whatever that full truth may turn out to be. As Dr. Michael Kerr points out, compulsive optimism is one of the ways we bind our anxiety to avoid confronting it. That form of positive thinking is the coping mechanism of the hurt child. The adult who remains hurt without being aware of it makes this residual defence of the child into a life principle. The onset of symptoms or the diagnosis of a disease should prompt a two-pronged inquiry: what is this illness saying about the past and present, and what will help in the future? Many approaches focus only on the second half of that healing dyad without considering fully what led to the manifestation of illness in the first place. Such “positive” methods fill the bookshelves and the airwaves. In order to heal, it is essential to gather the strength to think negatively. Negative thinking is not a doleful, pessimistic view that masquerades as “realism.” Rather, it is a willingness to consider what is not working. What is not in balance? What have I ignored? What is my body saying no to? Without these questions, the stresses responsible for our lack of balance will remain hidden. Even more fundamentally, not posing those questions is itself a source of stress. First, “positive thinking” is based on an unconscious belief that we are not strong enough to handle reality. Allowing this fear to dominate engenders a state of childhood apprehension. Whether or not the apprehension is conscious, it is a state of stress. Second, lack of essential information about ourselves and our situation is one of the major sources of stress and one of the potent activators of the hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal (HPA) stress response. Third, stress wanes as independent, autonomous control increases. One cannot be autonomous as long as one is driven by relationship dynamics, by guilt or attachment needs, by hunger for success, by the fear of the boss or by the fear of boredom. The reason is simple: autonomy is impossible as long as one is driven by anything. Like a leaf blown by the wind, the driven person is controlled by forces more powerful than he is. His autonomous will is not engaged, even if he believes that he has “chosen” his stressed lifestyle and even if he enjoys his activities. The choices he makes are attached to invisible strings. He is still unable to say no, even if it is only to his own drivenness. When he finally wakes up, he shakes his head, Pinocchio-like, and says, “How foolish I was when I was a puppet.

Interactions with the world program our physiological and psychological development. Emotional contact is as important as physical contact. The two are quite analogous, as we recognize when we speak of the emotional experience of feeling touched. Our sensory organs and brains provide the interface through which relationships shape our evolution from infancy to adulthood. Social-emotional interactions decisively influence the development of the human brain. From the moment of birth, they regulate the tone, activity and development of the psychoneuroimmunoendocrine (PNI) super-system. Our characteristic modes of handling psychic and physical stress are set in our earliest years. Neuroscientists at Harvard University studied the cortisol levels of orphans who were raised in the dreadfully neglected child-care institutions established in Romania during the Ceausescu regime. In these facilities the caregiver/child ratio was one to twenty. Except for the rudiments of care, the children were seldom physically picked up or touched. They displayed the self-hugging motions and depressed demeanour typical of abandoned young, human or primate. On saliva tests, their cortisol levels were abnormal, indicating that their hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes were already impaired. As we have seen, disruptions of the HPA axis have been noted in autoimmune disease, cancer and other conditions. It is intuitively easy to understand why abuse, trauma or extreme neglect in childhood would have negative consequences. But why do many people develop stress-related illness without having been abused or traumatized? These persons suffer not because something negative was inflicted on them but because something positive was withheld.

It may seem paradoxical to claim that stress, a physiological mechanism vital to life, is a cause of illness. To resolve this apparent contradiction, we must differentiate between acute stress and chronic stress. Acute stress is the immediate, short-term body response to threat. Chronic stress is activation of the stress mechanisms over long periods of time when a person is exposed to stressors that cannot be escaped either because she does not recognize them or because she has no control over them. Discharges of nervous system, hormonal output and immune changes constitute the flight-or-fight reactions that help us survive immediate danger. These biological responses are adaptive in the emergencies for which nature designed them. But the same stress responses, triggered chronically and without resolution, produce harm and even permanent damage. Chronically high cortisol levels destroy tissue. Chronically elevated adrenalin levels raise the blood pressure and damage the heart. There is extensive documentation of the inhibiting effect of chronic stress on the immune system. In one study, the activity of immune cells called natural killer (NK) cells were compared in two groups: spousal caregivers of people with Alzheimer’s disease, and age- and health-matched controls. NK cells are front-line troops in the fight against infections and against cancer, having the capacity to attack invading micro-organisms and to destroy cells with malignant mutations. The NK cell functioning of the caregivers was significantly suppressed, even in those whose spouses had died as long as three years previously. The caregivers who reported lower levels of social support also showed the greatest depression in immune activity — just as the loneliest medical students had the most impaired immune systems under the stress of examinations. Another study of caregivers assessed the efficacy of immunization against influenza. In this study 80 per cent among the non-stressed control group developed immunity against the virus, but only 20 per cent of the Alzheimer caregivers were able to do so. The stress of unremitting caregiving inhibited the immune system and left people susceptible to influenza. Research has also shown stress-related delays in tissue repair. The wounds of Alzheimer caregivers took an average of nine days longer to heal than those of controls. Higher levels of stress cause higher cortisol output via the HPA axis, and cortisol inhibits the activity of the inflammatory cells involved in wound healing. Dental students had a wound deliberately inflicted on their hard palates while they were facing immunology exams and again during vacation. In all of them the wound healed more quickly in the summer. Under stress, their white blood cells produced less of a substance essential to healing. The oft-observed relationship between stress, impaired immunity and illness has given rise to the concept of “diseases of adaptation,” a phrase of Hans Selye’s. The flight-or-fight response, it is argued, was indispensable in an era when early human beings had to confront a natural world of predators and other dangers. In civilized society, however, the flight-fight reaction is triggered in situations where it is neither necessary nor helpful, since we no longer face the same mortal threats to existence. The body’s physiological stress mechanisms are often triggered inappropriately, leading to disease. There is another way to look at it. The flight-or-fight alarm reaction exists today for the same purpose evolution originally assigned to it: to enable us to survive. What has happened is that we have lost touch with the gut feelings designed to be our warning system. The body mounts a stress response, but the mind is unaware of the threat. We keep ourselves in physiologically stressful situations, with only a dim awareness of distress or no awareness at all.

First, the brain sends a message to the adrenal glands that results in the release of adrenaline, also called epinephrine. This triggers your heart rate to increase as blood is directed to your muscles in the event you need to flee. When the threat is gone, your body normalizes again. But if the threat doesn’t go away and your stress response intensifies, then a series of events take place along what’s called the HPA axis, short for hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and which involves multiple stress hormones.

Altered Stress Response: The body's stress response system, particularly the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, can become dysregulated, leading to a variety of health issues.

The Biology of Animal Stress, prenatal exposure to elevated levels of stress hormones, such as cortisol and adrenaline, can set puppies up to develop abnormal brain chemistries, specifically, an abnormal regulation in the pathway between the hypothalamus in the brain and the adrenal glands (glands that produce stress-related hormones), called the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. HPA axis abnormalities can lead to anxiety, fear, and even aggression problems as adults.

We “activate a physiological system that has evolved for responding to acute physical emergencies,” Sapolsky writes, “but we turn it on for months on end, worrying about mortgages, relationships, and promotions.” And over the past fifty years, scientists have discovered that this phenomenon is not merely inefficient but also highly destructive. Overloading the HPA axis, especially in infancy and childhood, produces all kinds of serious and long-lasting negative effects—physical, psychological, and neurological.

levels, regulate the HPA axis, balance the immune system, and improve cognitive functioning. Over and over again the research pointed to one treatment in particular—meditation. Though

If you find yourself mired in continual and ongoing rumination, be aware that this will have a devastating impact on your mental and physical health over time. Rumination is in some ways “stress over nothing.” Rumination is created in the mind, and in the same way, the mind can kill rumination by not engaging in it, or silencing rumination before it has an opportunity to fester and grow. We want to avoid reliving stressful situations over and over in the mind, since this prolongs activation of the HPA-axis. The ruminator is creating “stress from within” when there is no real stress currently present in the environment.

Chronic low-grade anxiety affects the feedback between your brain’s hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands—a configuration known as the HPA-axis, which regulates digestion, immunity, moods, libido, and energy.

What’s more, researchers have found that there is something uniquely out of balance about the adolescent brain that makes it especially susceptible to bad and impulsive decisions. Laurence Steinberg, a psychologist at Temple University, has analyzed two separate neurological systems that develop in childhood and early adulthood that together have a profound effect on the lives of adolescents. The problem is, these two systems are not well aligned. The first, called the incentive processing system, makes you more sensation seeking, more emotionally reactive, more attentive to social information. (If you’ve ever been a teenager, this may sound familiar.) The second, called the cognitive control system, allows you to regulate all those urges. The reason the teenage years have always been such a perilous time, Steinberg says, is that the incentive processing system reaches its full power in early adolescence while the cognitive control system doesn’t finish maturing until you’re in your twenties. So for a few wild years, we are all madly processing incentives without a corresponding control system to keep our behavior in check. And if you combine that standard-issue whacked-out adolescent neurochemistry with an overloaded HPA axis, you’ve got a particularly toxic brew.

Etiology l Genetic studies provide evidence that bipolar disorder is strongly heritable and that depression is somewhat heritable. l Neurobiological research has focused on the sensitivity of receptors rather than on the amount of various transmitters, with the strongest evidence for diminished sensitivity of the serotonin receptors in depression and mania. There is some evidence that mania is related to heightened sensitivity of the dopamine receptors and that depression is related to diminished sensitivity of dopamine receptors. l Bipolar and unipolar disorders seem tied to elevated activity of the amygdala and the subgenual anterior cingulate and to diminished activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and hippocampus during tasks that involve emotion and emotion regulation. During mania, greater levels of activation of the striatum have been observed. Mania also may involve elevations in protein kinase C. l Overactivity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA), as indexed by poor suppression of cortisol by dexamethasone, is related to severe forms of depression and to bipolar disorder. l Socioenvironmental models focus on the role of negative life events, lack of social support, and family criticism as triggers for episodes but also consider ways in which a person with depression may elicit negative responses from others. People with less social skill and those who tend to seek excessive reassurance are at elevated risk for the development of depression. l The personality trait that appears most related to depression is neuroticism. Neuroticism predicts the onset of depression. l Influential cognitive theories include Beck’s cognitive theory, hopelessness theory, and rumination theory. All argue that depression can be caused by cognitive factors, but the nature of the cognitive factors differs across

Phosphatidylserine. This is essential for nerve cell membranes, and also supports cognition, including the formation of short-term memory, the consolidation of long-term memory, the ability to create new memories, and the ability to retrieve memories.[57] Supplementation with phosphatidylserine has been shown to lower cortisol levels by normalizing stress-induced dysregulation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis.[58] Suggested Dosage: 100 to 500g taken before each high cortisol episode Ashwagandha. This is also known as Withania somnifera, and it is an adaptogenic herb. It supports both the HPA and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axes. Thus, it can help people who have HPA axis dysregulation because of chronic stress, and by supporting the HPT axis it can also benefit thyroid function. As I mentioned in Chapter 27, ashwagandha is part of the nightshade (Solanaceae) family, and nightshades are excluded from an autoimmune Paleo diet. Ashwagandha can help with sleep issues by lowering cortisol levels, although one study showed that this herb might help with insomnia by increasing levels of the neurotransmitter GABA.[59] Suggested Dosage: 250 to 500mg taken before each high cortisol episode

people are not trustworthy, that when stressed he cannot really emotionally stay connected to them, and that he is unworthy of being loved. This way of seeing the world is typical of insecure attachments and these unconscious emotional biases will guide overt behavior, especially under relational stress. What is more, the infant of a misattuned mother will frequently be presented with an aggressive expression on his mother’s face, implying he is a threat, or with an expression of fear-terror, implying that he is the source of alarm. Images of his mother’s aggressive and/or fearful face, and the resultant chaotic alterations in her bodily state, are internalized, meaning they are imprinted in his developing right brain limbic circuits as an implicit memory, below levels of consciousness. Although out of awareness, they can plague him and his relationships for his entire life unless he finds a way to bring them into conscious awareness and work with them. Furthermore, when the caregiver is attuned in her early interactions, her more mature nervous system is regulating the infant’s neurochemistry and homeostasis. This, in turn, has a profound influence on the structural organization of the developing brain. Conversely emotional trauma will negatively impact the parts of the brain which are developing at the time of trauma. For example, if high levels of stress hormones are circulating in a pregnant mother, it up-regulates the fetus’ developing stress response – making the child, and future adult hypersensitive to stress. Relational trauma that occurs around the time of birth has a negative impact on both the developing micro-architecture of the amygdala itself, and the amygdala’s connection to the HPA axis, as well as to other parts of the limbic system. Thus high levels of early unrepaired interpersonal stress have a profoundly harmful effect on the ability to form social bonds, and on temperament. Suffering unrepaired and frequent emotional stress after about ten months interferes with the experience-dependent maturation of the highest level regulatory systems in the right orbifrontal cortex. This opens the door

I devoured research about how repeated trauma in a young person will induce chronic activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis – the system that directs how a body responds to stress, the “fight or flight” reaction.

ONE STRESS RESPONSE FOR ALL STRESSORS There is but one stress response for all stressors. When I say all stressors, I mean all stressors, including exercise stress, relationship conflict, abuse of any kind, financial strain, discrimination, work tension, harassment, and racism. In the same way that moderate-to-vigorous-intensity exercises activate the SAM and HPA axes, so do psychological stressors; however, unlike exercise, psychological stressors tend to be involuntary and long-lasting, meaning that they are less likely to give you the allostasis that you want and more likely to give you the allostatic load that you don’t want. If you’re here because your mind needs healing, you’re probably familiar with chronic stress. At worst, it leaves you feeling helpless. And then something very unexpected happens: Instead of fight or flight, stress causes you to freeze. Learned Helplessness and How to Overcome It “There’s nothing I can do to change things, so what’s the point in even trying,” Leslie thinks to herself before crawling back into bed and burying herself under the covers.

People under chronic stress often change their eating habits, and many of them overeat. Psychological stress elevates circulating ghrelin, which stimulates a preference for calorie-rich “comfort” foods. These foods activate reward circuits, increasing dopamine and reducing stress-induced anxiety and depression. In our laboratory, we found that a high-fat diet protects against the deleterious effects of chronic stress. This blunting effect of a high-fat diet on stress is likely mediated by the HPA axis. At some point this can move behavior from impulsive to compulsive. Like an addiction, you can become tolerant to comfort food, and no longer get the same dopamine reward. That can increase your anxiety and depression, which can lead to additional overeating. This in turn can lead to obesity, which further contributes to anxiety and depression.110

Gut dysfunction. Includes small intestine bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), infections (e.g., parasites, pathogenic bacteria, viruses, candida), low stomach acid, bile, and enzyme production, intestinal permeability, and food intolerances. Nutrient imbalance. Includes deficiency of nutrients like vitamin B12, iron, folate, magnesium, zinc, EPA/DHA and fat-soluble vitamins (most common), and excess of nutrients like iron (less common). HPA axis dysregulation. Includes regulating the communication between the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands, and balancing the production of hormones associated with those glands (e.g., DHEA, cortisol). Toxic burden. Includes exposure to chemicals (e.g., BPA, phthalates, etc.), heavy metals (e.g., mercury, arsenic), biotoxins (e.g., mold/mycotoxins, inflammation), or impaired detoxification capacity due to nutrient deficiency, GI issues, or other causes. Chronic infections. Includes “stealth” infections by tick-borne organisms (e.g., Borrelia, Babesia, Bartonella, Ehrlichia), intracellular bacteria (e.g., Mycoplamsa, Chlamydophila), viruses (e.g., HHV-6, HPV), and dental bacteria. Hormone imbalance. Includes hormones associated with metabolism (e.g., insulin, leptin), thyroid, and gonads (e.g., estrogen, progesterone, testosterone). Immune dysregulation. Includes autoimmunity, underactive immune function, and chronic, systemic inflammation. Cellular dysfunction. Impaired methylation, energy production, and mitochondrial function, and oxidative damage.

Hpa-An A small and fairly average town in Southeastern Myanmar but it is a base for exploring some of the fantastic surrounding areas. There are lots of curious caves to discover with the giant Saddar cave and its reclining Buddha and the Bat Cave the best ones. The Bat Cave is best visited at sunset when a ridiculous number of bats (hundreds of thousands) fly out of it only to return the following morning. You can also rent a bike or motorbike and explore the tranquil Burmese countryside. Another option is to climb to the top of Mount Zwegabin which is home to a monastery where the resident monks will let you sleep.

The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal connection is known in scientific circles as the HPA axis. You may already have had some “aha’s” while reading this little lecture on the HPA axis and the stress response. Hopefully, it has helped to answer the question of why on earth we ADDers would want to create crises and chaos in our lives. If you trip the stress response circuit, you get arousal, attention, alertness, vigilance . . . all the tools you need to complete that project you have procrastinated on right up to the drop-dead line.

Importantly, increased oxytocin levels lead to a decrease in activity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis; see here) and enhanced immune function. Essentially, increasing oxytocin protects against stress. In fact, positive social interaction has been shown to have a direct impact on wound healing, attributable to increased levels of oxytocin. Oxytocin also modulates inflammation by decreasing some proinflammatory cytokines. Whether the effects of oxytocin are completely owing to direct interactions with the immune system or to effects on cortisol and the HPA axis remains unknown. Either way, the feeling of connection is important for general health and well-being.

Rhodiola rosea is a herbal medicine that was traditionally used as an energy and fertility tonic in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Russia. How it works: It calms your HPA axis by sheltering your brain from cortisol and excitatory neurotransmitters. [92] In one Swedish placebo-controlled study, [93] participants given Rhodiola had measurably lower cortisol levels and scored better on scales of burn-out and cognitive function. Rhodiola can also relieve symptoms of depression. [94] What else you need to know: The exact quantity of the herb depends on the concentration of the formula, so please take as directed on the bottle.

Magnesium is the key nutrient for calming your nervous system and regulating your HPA Axis.

B vitamins can help reduce perceived stress and improve anxiety. [90] How it works: B vitamins boost levels of the calming neurotransmitters GABA and serotonin. What else you need to know: For stress and HPA axis dysfunction, choose a B-complex that contains choline and vitamin B5, the “anti-stress factor.” [91

Protein for breakfast is an easy way to improve insulin sensitivity, stabilize blood sugar, and calm your stress response or HPA axis.

maintaining stable blood sugar is a simple way to improve the function of your HPA axis. The best way to do that is to eat a small portion of protein with every meal, especially breakfast.

Zinc improves the health of the hippocampus, [89] which is the part of the brain that calms the HPA axis.

Glucocorticoid hormones—anti-inflammatory steroid hormones, most notably cortisol—are secreted by the adrenal glands on signals from the hypothalamic-pituitary system in the brain. A diminished cortisol response by an impaired HPA axis would promote inflammation.

251]]] 작대기구입 텔레그램 SGJ8282 작대기텔레그램 언제나 함께하는 포시즌, 오늘도 좋은 하루 되길 바라 찬술 떨액 떨 브액 몰리 좌표 작대기 1. 서울특별시 종로구, 중구, 용산구, 성동구, 광진구, 동대문구, 중랑구, 성북구, 강북구, 도봉구, 노원구, 은평구, 서대문구, 마포구, 양천구, 강서구, 구로구, 금천구, 영등포구, 동작구, 관악구, 서초구, 강남구, 송파구, 강동구 2. 부산광역시 중구, 서구, 동구, 영도구, 부산진구, 동래구, 남구, 북구, 강서구, 해운대구, 사하구, 금정구, 연제구, 수영구, 사상구 기장군 3. 대구광역시 자치구: 중구, 동구, 서구, 남구, 북구, 수성구, 달서구 군: 달성군, 군위군 (2023년 7월 1일부터 대구광역시로 편입됨) 4. 인천광역시 중구, 동구, 미추홀구, 연수구, 남동구, 부평구, 계양구, 서구 강화군, 옹진군 5. 광주광역시 자치구: 동구, 서구, 중구, 북구, 광산구 6. 대전광역시 중구, 서구, 동구, 유성구, 대덕구 7. 울산광역시 중구, 남구, 동구, 북구 울주군 8. 세종특별자치시 조치원읍, 연기면, 연동면, 부강면, 금남면, 장군면, 연서면, 전의면, 전동면, 소정면, 한솔동, 새롬동, 나성동, 다정동, 도담동, 어진동, 해밀동, 아름동, 종촌동, 고운동, 보람동, 대평동, 소담동, 반곡동 9. 경기도 수원시, 의정부시, 용인시, 고양시, 성남시, 화성시, 부천시, 남양주시, 천안시, 안산시, 안양시, 평택시, 김포시, 시흥시, 파주시, 광주시, 군포시, 오산시, 이천시, 양주시, 하남시, 광명시, 구리시, 안성시, 양평군, 여주시, 포천시, 의왕시, 동두천시, 여주시 가평군, 연천군, 과천시 10. 강원특별자치도 춘천시, 원주시, 강릉시, 동해시, 속초시, 삼척시, 홍천군, 철원군, 태백시, 횡성군, 평창군, 영월군 양양군, 정선군, 고성군, 인제군, 양구군, 화천군, 철원군 11. 충청북도 청주시, 제천시, 충주시, 옥천군, 진천군, 음성군, 괴산군, 증평군, 보은군, 옥천군 괴산군, 증평군, 보은군12. 충청남도 천안시, 아산시, 서산시, 당진시, 공주시, 보령시, 논산시, 계룡시, 홍성군, 예산군 금산군, 서천군, 부여군13. 전라북도 전주시, 익산시, 군산시, 정읍시, 남원시, 김제시, 완주군, 고창군, 부안군, 장수군 고창군, 부안군14. 전라남도 순천시, 여수시, 목포시, 광양시, 나주시, 해남군, 담양군, 보성군, 화순군 해남군, 담양군, 보성군, 화순군15. 경상북도 포항시, 경주시, 구미시, 김천시, 안동시, 영주시, 영천시, 상주시, 문경시, 칠곡군, 울진군, 예천군 울진군, 예천군16. 경상남도 창원시, 진주시, 김해시, 양산시, 통영시, 사천시, 밀양시, 거제시, 고성군, 함안군, 창녕군, 하동군, 함양군 고성군, 함안군, 창녕군, 하동군, 함양군 251 텔레 1073 텔레그램 1895 텔 판매처 2717 구입처 삽니다 3539 팝니다 사는곳 4361 사는방법 구하는방법 5183 딜러모집 드라퍼모집 252 가격 판매 253 파는곳 구매 254 구입 차가운술 255 작대기 몰리 256 브액 브액 257 떨 떨액 258 찬술 클럽마약 259 엘에스디 고기 260 헤로인 우유주사 261 시원한술 허브 262 사티바 인디카 263 LSD 아이스 264 프로포폴 대마초 265 코코카인 콕 266 코카인 케타민 267 케이 캔디 2.1 유통 단계별 조직 구성 그건 사람의 삶북한술사는곳서 시간, 기억, 감정, 자아를 지워버리빙두사는곳 4단계 4.3 정보 처리 속 찬술사는곳 감소 케타민은 코르티솔 분비를 조절하빙두사는곳 HPA 축북한술사는곳 찬술사는곳 영향떨 미치며, 스트레스북한술사는곳 대한 체내 반응이 과잉 또빙두사는곳 둔화된 상태로 유지될 수 있게 만듭아이스작대기사빙두사는곳 곳 아이스 . 작대기구입 텔레그램 SGJ8282 작대기텔레그램