Giambattista Vico Quotes

The most sublime labour of poetry is to give sense and passion to insensate things; and it is characteristic of children to take inanimate things in their hands and talk to them in play as if they were living persons... This philological-philosophical axiom proves to us that in the world's childhood men were by nature sublime poets...

A city divided by religion is either already in ruins or close to it.

Because of the indefinite nature of the human mind, wherever it is lost in ignorance man makes himself the measure of all things.

peoples, like so many beasts, have fallen into the custom of each man thinking only of his own private interests and have reached the extreme of delicacy, or better of pride, in which like wild animals they bristle and lash out at the slightest displeasure. Thus no matter how great the throng and press of their bodies, they live like wild beasts in a deep solitude of spirit and will, scarcely any two being able to agree since each follows his own pleasure and caprice.

In every [other] pursuit men without natural aptitude succeed by obstinate study of technique, but who is not a poet by nature can never become one by art.

Love your neighbor. Love the stranger. Hear the cry of the otherwise unheard. Liberate the poor from their poverty. Care for the dignity of all. Let those who have more than they need share their blessings with those who have less. Feed the hungry, house the homeless, and heal the sick in body and mind. Fight injustice, whoever it is done by and whoever it is done against. And do these things because, being human, we are bound by a covenant of human solidarity, whatever our color or culture, class or creed. These are moral principles, not economic or political ones. They have to do with conscience, not wealth or power. But without them, freedom will not survive. The free market and liberal democratic state together will not save liberty, because liberty can never be built by self-interest alone. I-based societies all eventually die. Ibn Khaldun showed this in the fourteenth century, Giambattista Vico in the eighteenth, and Bertrand Russell in the twentieth. Other-based societies survive. Morality is not an option. It’s an essential.

Uniform ideas originating among entire peoples unknown to each other must have a common ground of truth [D4].

The giants were by nature of enormous build, like those gross wild creatures which travelers report finding at the foot of America, in the country of the so-called Patagones [Big Feet].

The Roman jurisconsults established worship of God as the first and foremost part of the natural law of the gentes. For where there is neither rule of law nor force of arms, and men are accordingly in a state of complete freedom, they can neither enter nor remain in society with others except through fear of a force superior to them all, and, therefore, through fear of a divinity common to all. This fear of divinity is called ‘religion’.

We observe that all nations, barbarous as well as civilized, though separately founded because remote from each other in time and space, keep these three human customs: all have some religion, all contract solemn marriages, all bury their dead.

And as if, finally, providence had not made provision for this human necessity: so that, lacking letters, all nations in their barbarous period were first founded on customs, and [only] later, having become civilized, were governed by [statutory] laws!

... rational metaphysics teaches that man becomes all things by understanding them ... imaginative metaphysics shows that man becomes all things by not understanding them ... for when he does not understand he makes the things out of himself and becomes them by transforming himself into them.

[Cadmus the Phoenician founds Thebes in Boeotia and introduces vulgar letters into Greece. Year of the world 2448.] 72 Since he introduced the Phoenician alphabet there, Boeotia should have been from its literate beginnings the most ingenious of all the nations of Greece; but it produced men of such doltish minds that “Boeotian” became a proverbial term for a man of slow wit.

With the sole aim of liberating themselves from the servitude of religion, which alone could preserve them in society, and, lacking any other restraint, they turned their backs upon the true God of their fathers, Adam and Noah, and descended into a bestial liberty in which, dispersed throughout the great forest of the earth, they lost their language and weakened every social custom.

[Saturn, or the Latin age of the gods. Year of the world 2491.] 73 This is the age of the gods beginning among the nations of Latium and corresponding in character to the golden age of the Greeks, among whom our mythology will show [544ff] that the first gold was grain, by the harvests of which for many centuries the first nations counted their years [407]. Saturn was so called by the Latins from sati, sown [fields], and is called Chronos by the Greeks, among whom chronos means time, whence comes the word chronology.

That the flood was world-wide is proved, not indeed by the philological evidence of Martin Schoock, for it is far too slight, nor by the astrological evidence of Cardinal Pierre d’Ailly, followed by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. For this latter evidence is too uncertain, indeed quite false, relying as it does on the Alphonsine Tables, which were refuted by the Jews and are now refuted by the Christians, who, having rejected the calculations of Eusebius and Bede, now follow those of Philo the Jew [54]. But our demonstration will be drawn from physical histories discerned in the fables [192–195, 380].

Jamás existió en el mundo nación de ateos, pues empezaron todas con alguna religión, y las religiones, sin salvedad, echaron su raigambre en aquel deseo, naturalmente común a los hombres, de vivir eternamente: y este universal deseo de la naturaleza humana nace de un común sentido, celado en la hondura de la mente humana, según el cual los ánimos de los hombres son inmortales.

And here we determine the άκμή [acme], i.e. perfect state, of the nations, which is enjoyed when the sciences, disciplines and arts, all of which draw their being from religion and the law, are in service to religion and the law. Hence when the nations conduct themselves in a different way, as they would with the Epicureans and Stoics, or with indifference to it, as with the sceptics, or contrary to it, as with the atheists, they proceed to their downfall, losing their own dominant religions and, with them, their own laws. And because they do not value their own religions and laws as being worthy of defence, they proceed to lose also their own arms and languages and, with the loss of these properties, the further property of retaining their own names within those of other dominant nations. Hence, having proved that their nature is such that they are incapable of governing themselves, they lose their own governments. Thus, in accordance with the eternal law of Providence, the natural law of the heroic gentes, in which there is no equality of justice between the weak and the strong, recurs.

Y aquí se determina el άκμή, o sea el estado perfecto de las naciones que se goza cuando las ciencias, las disciplinas y las artes, así como todas recibieron el ser de las religiones y leyes, sirven todas a las leyes y a las religiones. De modo que cuando obran diversamente de tales fines, como los epicúreos y los estoicos, o con indiferencia hacia ellos, como los escépticos, o contra ellos, como los ateos, las naciones están próximas a caer y a perder las propias religiones dominantes, y con ellas las propias leyes; y ya que no sirvieron para defender las propias leyes y religiones, perderán aún las armas y las lenguas; y con la perdición de éstas sus propiedades, deberán sobrellevar otra, la de sus nombres, extraviados entre los de las naciones señoreadoras: y por todo ello, demostradas naturalmente incapaces de gobernarse a sí mismas, perderán los gobiernos; y así por ley eterna de la Providencia, que quiere a toda costa conservar, regresar el derecho natural de las gentes heroicas, mediante el cual no hay entre débiles y fuertes igualdad de razón.

E qui si determina l'άκμή, o sia lo stato perfetto delle nazioni, che si gode quando le scienze, le discipline e le arti, siccome tutte hanno l'essere dalle religioni e dalle leggi, tutte servono alle leggi e alle religioni. Talché, quando elleno o fanno diversamente da ciò, come gli epicurei e gli stoici, o con indifferenza a ciò, come gli scettici, o contro di ciò, come gli atei, le nazioni vanno a cadere e a perdere le propie religioni dominanti, e, con esse, le propie leggi; e, poiché non valsero a difendere le propie religioni e leggi, vanno a perdere le propie armi, le propie lingue; e, con la perdita di queste loro propietà, vanno a sperdere quell'altra de’ propi nomi dentro quelli delle nazioni dominanti; e per tutto ciò, sperimentate naturalmente incapaci' a governare esse stesse, vanno a perdere i propi governi. E sì, per legge eterna della provvedenza ricorre il diritto naturale delle genti eroiche, per lo quale tra’ deboli e forti non vi ha egualità dì ragione.

... rational metaphysics teaches that man becomes all things by understanding them ... imaginative metaphysics shows that man becomes all things by not understanding them ... for when he does not understand he makes the things out of himself and becomes them by transforming himself into them.

First come the wild and solitary, then those tied to a few in faithful friendship, next those who side with the manyto attain civil ends, and finally, in pursuit of particular ends of utilityor pleasure, the whollydissolute , who, amidst the great multitude of bodies, return to the first solitude of the soul.

Los hombres ambiciosos que afectan señoría en sus ciudades, ábrense en ellas rumbo mostrándose parciales de la muchedumbre, y halagándola con ciertos simulacros o apariencias de libertad.

Sin religión alguna de una Divinidad, jamás los hombres en nación se concertaron; y así comode cosas físicas, o sea de los movimientos de los cuerpos, no cabeciencia segura sin la guía de las verdades abstractas de la matemática, así no cabe en las cosas morales sin el aprecio de las verdades abstractas de la metafísica, y por tanto sin la demostración de Dios.

Aquellos hombres primeros de los que luego surgieron las naciones gentiles, que para librarse de la servidumbre de la religión del Dios creador del mundo y de Adán, única que podía tenerles en cintura y por consiguiente en sociedad, se disiparon con impías vidas, errando feroces por la gran selva de la Tierra fresca, desde la Creación en adelante y después de las aguas del Diluvio hacha frondosísima. Constreñidos se vieron los tales a buscar sustento o agua, y mucho más a ampararse contra las fieras que por desdicha abundarían en la gran selva; y abandonando a menudo los hombres a las mujeres, madres e hijos, sin modo de poderse recobrar, con lo que llegaron gradualmente en su posteridad a desamparar la lengua de Adán, y sin más ideas que la satisfacción del hambre y la sed o el fomento de la libídine, llegaron a aturdir en sí mismos todo sentido de humanidad.

We begin our principles with the idea that is the first in any work whatsoever: divine Providence, who is the architect of this world of nations. For men cannot unite in a human society unless they share ahuman sense that there is a divinity who sees into the depths of their hearts, since a society of men can neither begin nor remain stable without a means whereby some rely upon the promises of others and are satisfied by their assertions in secret matters. For it frequently happens in human life that promises need to be made and accepted, and actions undertaken, with regard to things for which, though not wrong in themselves, others need some assurance, but which lack the support of any human documentation. It might be argued that such assurance could be gained through the rigour of penal laws against lie telling, but while this could obtain in the state of the cities, it would not have been possible in the state of the families from which the cities arose, where there was as yet no civil or public rule under which two family fathers, for example, would be equally subject in justice to the armed force of the law.

Este universo es una gran ciudad en la que con una ley eterna Dios condena a los necios a hacer una guerra contra sí mismos. (...) Si algún idiota, por maldad perversa, por relajación o por pereza, o incluso por imprudencia, actuara mal, siendo reo de alta traición, ¡hágase él mismo la guerra a sí mismo!

se vogliamo entrare nella via del piacere con viltà, disprezzo e schiavitù loro e delle loro nazioni, o in quella della virtù con onore, gloria e felicità" SN, 1411

Insomma, da tutto ciò che si è in quest'opera ragionato, è da finalmente conchiudersi che questa scienza porta indivisibilmente seco lo studio della pietà, e che, se non siesi pio, non si può daddovero esser saggio, SN 1112

To maximize pleasure and to minimize pain - in that order - were characteristic Enlightenment concerns. This generally more receptive attitude toward good feeling and pleasure would have significant long-term consequences. It is a critical difference separating Enlightenment views on happiness from those of the ancients. There is another, however, of equal importance: that of ambition and scale. Although the philosophers of the principal classical schools sought valiantly to minimize the role of chance as a determinant of human happiness, they were never in a position to abolish it entirely. Neither, for that matter, were the philosophers of the eighteenth century, who, like men and women at all times, were forced to grapple with apparently random upheavals and terrible reversals of forture. The Lisbon earthquake of 1755 is an awful case in point. Striking on All Saints' Day while the majority of Lisbon's inhabitants were attending mass, the earthquake was followed by a tidal wave and terrible fires that destroyed much of the city and took the lives of tens of thousands of men and women. 'Quel triste jeu de hasard que le jeu de la vie humaine,' Voltaire was moved to reflect shortly thereafter: 'What a sad game of chance is this game of human life.' He was not alone in reexamining his more sanguine assumptions of earlier in the century, doubting the natural harmony of the universe and the possibilities of 'paradise on earth'; the catastrophe provoked widespread reflection on the apparent 'fatality of evil' and the random occurrence of senseless suffering. It was shortly thereafter that Voltaire produced his dark masterpiece, Candide, which mocks the pretension that this is the best of all possible worlds. And yet, in many ways, the incredulity expressed by educated Europeans in the earthquake's aftermath is a more interesting index of received assumptions, for it demonstrates the degree to which such random disasters were becoming, if not less common, at least less expected. Their power to shock was magnified accordingly, but only because the predictability and security of daily existence were increasing, along with the ability to control the consequences of unforeseen disaster. When the Enlightened Marquis of Pombal, the First Minister of Portugal, set about rebuilding Lisbon after the earthquake, he paid great attention to modern principles of architecture and central planning to help ensure that if such a calamity were to strike again, the effects would be less severe. To this day, the rebuilt Lisbon of Pombal stands as an embodiment of Enlightened ideas. Thus, although eighteenth-century minds did not - and could not - succeed in mastering the random occurrences of the universe, they could - and did - conceive of exerting much greater control over nature and human affairs. Encouraged by the examples of Newtonian physics, they dreamed of understanding not only the laws of the physical universe but the moral and human laws as well, hoping one day to lay out with precision what the Italian scholar Giambattista Vico described as a 'new science' of society and man. It was in the eighteenth century, accordingly, that the human and social sciences were born, and so it is hardly surprising that observers turned their attention to studying happiness in similar terms. Whereas classical sages had aimed to cultivate a rarified ethical elite - attempting to bring happiness to a select circle of disciples, or at most to the active citizens of the polis - Enlightenment visionaries dreamed of bringing happiness to entire societies and even to humanity as a whole.

Bacon, like Vico, held that the ancients were not classic models for the moderns, but their primitive ancestors – an idea that lies at the core of the New Science.

It contains another point of the greatest importance in [the history of] Roman institutions, for by this law the plebeians were released from the feudal liability of becoming liege vassals of the nobles on account of debts, for which the nobles used to compel the plebeians to work for them, often for life, in their private prisons [612]. But the senate retained the sovereign dominion it had over the lands of the Roman imperium, though the imperium itself had already passed to the people. And under the provisions of the senatus consultum which was called ultimum, of last resort, the senate kept this power for itself by force of arms as long as the Roman commonwealth remained free.

This is the Hermes who, on the authority of Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods [3.22.56], was called by the Egyptians [Thoth or] Theuth (from which the Greeks are said to have derived theos),

Varro had the diligence to collect thirty thousand names of gods—for the Greeks counted that many. These were related to as many needs of the physical, moral, economic, or civil life of the earliest times.

Men at first feel without perceiving, then they perceive with a troubled and agitated spirit, finally they reflect with a clear mind.

(omne ignotum pro magnifico est).

It is another property of the human mind that whenever men can form no idea of distant and unknown things, they judge them by what is familiar and at hand.

132 Legislation considers man as he is in order to turn him to good uses in human society. Out of ferocity, avarice, and ambition, the three vices which run throughout the human race, it creates the military, merchant, and governing classes, and thus the strength, riches, and wisdom of commonwealths.

195 This same axiom with its preceding postulate should make it clear to us that for a long period of time the impious races of the three children of Noah, having lapsed into a state of bestiality, went wandering like wild beasts until they were scattered and dispersed through the great forest of the earth, and that with their bestial education giants had sprung up and existed among them at the time when the heavens thundered for the first time after the flood [369ff].

Homer, whose own language was certainly heroic, in five passages from his two poems [437] mentions a more ancient language and calls it “the language of the gods.

He lays down as an axiom Dio’s dictum that “custom is like a king and law1 like a tyrant; which we must understand as referring to reasonable custom and to law1 not animated by natural reason.

C6 Now Vico here agrees with Aristotle. When he calls the world of nations the world of men, he means that what were beasts in the world of nature become men in the world of nations, and it is by the becoming of the world of nations that they become men. Or, as he puts it otherwise, in a sense they make the world of nations, and in the same sense they make themselves by making it [367, 520, 692].

Los gobiernos deben conformase a la naturaleza de los hombres gobernados.

Los gobiernos deben conformase a la naturaleza de los hombres gobernados, porque de la naturaleza de los hombres gobernados salen sus gobiernos.

Los gobiernos deben conformase a la naturaleza de los hombres gobernados, porque de la naturaleza de los hombres gobernados salen sus gobiernos, por eso las leyes deben ser administradas en conformidad a los gobiernos y, por esa causa, deben interpretarse a partir de la forma de los gobiernos.

Governments must conform to the nature of the people governed. This axiom indicates that, by the nature of human civil institutions, the public school of rulers is the morality of the people.

En las monarquías los héroes son los que se sacrifican por la gloria y grandeza de sus soberanos. De donde ha de concluirse que los pueblos afligidos desean a un héroe de este tipo, los filósofos lo explican y los poetas lo imaginan; pero la naturaleza civil, como hemos explicado en una dignidad, no aporta este tipo de beneficios

How, for example, after liberating themselves from servitude to the religion of God, the creator of the world and of Adam, which alone could hold them within duty and, therefore, within society, did the impious life of those first men from whom the gentile nations arose bring them to disperse in a ferine wandering through the great forest of the earth, grown dense through saturation by the waters of the Flood? And how, constrained to seek food and water and, even more, to save themselves from the wild animals in which the great forest must unfortunately have abounded, with men frequently abandoning their women and mothers their children, and with no way of reuniting, did their descendants gradually come to forget the language of Adam and, without language or any thought other than that of satisfying their hunger, thirst and the foment of their lust, deaden all sense of humanity?

As a result of all these difficulties, [the solution to the mode of] the division of the fields must be sought exclusively in religion. For when men are ferocious and wild, and their only equality consists in the equality of their ferocious and wild natures, should they ever have united without the force of arms or the rule of law, the only possible way in which they can have done so is through belief in the force and strength of a nature superior to anything human and through the idea that this superior force has constrained them to unite. This leads us led to meditate on the long and deceptive labour of Providence, whereby those of Grotius’s simpletons who were more awakened from their stupor, were roused by the first thunderbolts after the Flood and took them to be the warnings of a divinity who was the product of their own imagination. Hence they occupied the first empty lands, where they stayed with certain women and, having settled on them, begot certain races, buried their dead and, on specific occasions afforded them by religion, burnt the forests, ploughed the land and sowed it with wheat. Thus they laid down the boundaries of the fields, investing them with fierce superstitions through which, in ferocious defence of their clans, they defended them with the blood of the impious vagabonds who came, divided and alone, for they lacked any under standing of the strength of society, to steal the wheat, and were killed in the course of their theft.

Achilles replies that there is no equality of right between the weak and the strong, for men have never made pacts with lions nor have lambs and wolves ever shared the same desires. This was the law of the heroic gentes, based on the belief that the strong were of a different and more noble nature than the weak. Hence arose that law of war through which, by force of arms, the victors deprive the defeated of all their rights of natural liberty, so that the Romans took them as slaves in place of material things.

As a result of all these difficulties, [the solution to the mode of] the division of the fields must be sought exclusively in religion. For when men are ferocious and wild, and their only equality consists in the equality of their ferocious and wild natures, should they ever have united without the force of arms or the rule of law, the only possible way in which they can have done so is through belief in the force and strength of a nature superior to anything human and through the idea that this superior force has constrained them to unite. This leads us led to meditate on the long and deceptive labour of Providence, whereby those of Grotius’s simpletons who were more awakened from their stupor, were roused by the first thunderbolts after the Flood and took them to be the warnings of a divinity who was the product of their own imagination. Hence they occupied the first empty lands, where they stayed with certain women and, having settled on them, begot certain races, buried their dead and, on specific occasions afforded them by religion, burnt the forests, ploughed the land and sowed it with wheat. Thus they laid down the boundaries of the fields, investing them with fierce superstitions through which, in ferocious defence of their clans, they defended them with the blood of the impious vagabonds who came, divided and alone, for they lacked any under standing of the strength of society, to steal the wheat, and were killed in the course of their theft.

Monarchies conform best to human nature and therefore constitute the most durable form of state.

Esas naciones, en cuanto poseedoras de religiones y leyes propias, y para la defensa de sus leyes y religiones, dotadas de sus propias armas, y cultivando la lengua de sus religiones y leyes: naciones, pues, propiamente libres, cuanto más se desasieren de tales cosas, más pronto irán a extinguirse entre el furor de las guerras civiles, en las que prorrumpen los pueblos que huellan sus leyes y religiones: y entonces por designio de la Providencia van así a someterse a otros pueblos que las conservan.

Nations that have their own religions and laws, cultivating the language appropriate to them, and which they defend with their own arms, such nations alone are properly free. But Providence ordains that when nations lack these things, rather than annihilate themselves in the rash of civil wars that breakout when peoples trample on their laws and religions, they proceed to submit themselves to preservation under other better nations.

Hence Polybius is refuted by the fact that had there been no religion in the world there would have been no philosophers in it. Thus true, then, is his claim that had there been philosophers in the world, there would never have been need of any religion! Thus also is Bayle, with his belief that nations can reign without religions, refuted by fact. For, without a provident God, there would have been no states in the world other than those of wandering, bestiality, ugliness, violence, ferocity, depravity and blood, and probably, or even certainly, throughout the great forest of the earth, hideous and mute, mankind would not now exist.